Dominic Kao

Dominic Kao

I am an Assistant Professor at Purdue University and director of the Virtual Futures Lab. My research interests are in games, virtual reality, and human-computer interaction. I received a Ph.D. in Computer Science from MIT, a M.S.E. in Computer Science from Princeton University, and a B.S. in Computer Engineering from the University of Alberta. Previously, I worked at Electronic Arts as a game developer. In my research, I am interested in building and leveraging virtual worlds to understand their influence on people and develop best practices for developing games and learning environments. Broadly, I am interested in games research, HCI, and virtual reality.
E-mail: kaod@purdue.edu      Tel: 609-902-9087

Updates

  • 08/2024: Synthesizing Game Levels received 2023 Best Paper from ACM TiiS.
  • 06/2024: I am serving as an Associate Chair for ACM CHI 2025.
  • 03/2024: I received an NSF CAREER award.
    • More

Research Contributions

Experimental Environments

  • 7× Educational Games
  • 4× Entertainment Games
  • 2× Game Making Environments
  • 2× Additional Experimental Environments: Loot Boxes, Online Meetings
  • Robust Frameworks for Experiments
  • Avatar Creators, etc.

Systematic Experiments

  • 70 Peer-Reviewed Publications in Reputable Venues
  • 7× Best Paper Awards (e.g., CHI, CHI PLAY, FDG, IEEE ToG)
  • 30,000+ Participants

Funding

  • NSF IIS CAREER: Broadening Participation in Computing through Virtual Identities ($512,775)
  • NSF IIS: Productive Online Teamwork Engagement Through Intelligent Mediation ($850,000)
  • NSF IIS EAGER: Developing and Optimizing Reflection-Informed STEM Learning and Instruction ($300,000)

Selected Publications

  • How does Juicy Game Feedback Motivate? Testing Curiosity, Competence, and Effectance

    D. Kao, N. Ballou, K. Gerling, H. Breitsohl, S. Deterding
    ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2024.
    Access:

  • Exploring How Gender-Anonymous Voice Avatars Influence Women's Performance in Online Computing Group Work

    D. Kao, S. T. Mubarrat, A. Joshi, S. Pandita, C. Mousas, H.N. Liang, R. Ratan
    International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 2024.
    Access:

  • Effect of Frame Rate on User Experience, Performance, and Simulator Sickness in Virtual Reality

    J. Wang, R. Shi, W. Zheng, W. Xie, D. Kao, H.N. Liang
    IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces, published in IEEE TVCG, 2023.
    Access:

  • Synthesizing Game Levels for Collaborative Gameplay in a Shared Virtual Environment

    H. Liu, M. Choi, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    Best Paper Award, ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems, 2023.
    Access:

  • Audio Matters Too: How Audial Avatar Customization Enhances Visual Avatar Customization

    D. Kao, R. Ratan, C. Mousas, A. Joshi, E. Melcer
    Honorable Mention Award, ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2022.
    Access:

  • The Effects of a Self-Similar Avatar Voice in Educational Games

    D. Kao, R. Ratan, C. Mousas, A.J. Magana
    Honorable Mention Award, ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2021.
    Access:

  • Evaluating Tutorial-Based Instructions for Controllers in Virtual Reality Games

    D. Kao, A.J. Magana, C. Mousas
    ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2021.
    Access:

  • Virtual Reality Racket Sports: Virtual Drills for Exercise and Training

    H. Liu, Z. Wang, C. Mousas, D. Kao
    IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (IEEE ISMAR), 2020.
    Access:

  • Exploring Help Facilities in Game-Making Software

    D. Kao
    Best Paper Nominee, ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2020.
    Access:

  • The Effects of Juiciness in an Action RPG

    D. Kao
    Entertainment Computing, 2020.
    Access:
  • Infinite Loot Box: A Platform for Simulating Video Game Loot Boxes

    Infinite Loot Box: A Platform for Simulating Video Game Loot Boxes

    D. Kao
    Best Paper Nominee, IEEE Transactions on Games, 2019.
    Access:

  • The Effects of Badges and Avatar Identification on Play and Making in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2018.
    Access:

Publications

  • A Systematic Review of Generative AI on Game Character Creation: Applications, Challenges, and Future Trends

    Z. Wu, Z. Chen, D. Zhu, C. Mousas, D. Kao
    IEEE Transactions on Games, 2025. (Accepted with Minor Revisions.)
    Access:

  • Exploring Player Agency in Educational Video Games

    A. Joshi, C. Mousas, S. S. Tokey, D. Kao
    Entertainment Computing (ENTCOM), 2025.
    Access:

  • Toward Understanding the Effects of Intelligence of a Virtual Character during an Immersive Jigsaw Puzzle Co-Solving Task

    M. Choi, D. Cui, M. Volonte, A. Koilias, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    ACM Transactions on Applied Perception (TAP), 2024.
    Access:

  • AI-Based Automatic Detection of Online Teamwork Engagement in Higher Education

    A. J. Magana, S. T. Mubarrat, D. Kao, B. Benes
    IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies (TLT), 2024.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Effects of Self-correction Behavior of an Intelligent Virtual Character during a Jigsaw Puzzle Co-solving Task

    M. Choi, S. Guo, A. Koilias, M. Volonte, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems (TiiS), 2024.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational Games

    O. Oyedokun, S. T. Mubarrat, A. Joshi, C. Mousas, D. Kao
    Extended Abstracts of ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2024.
    Access:

  • Game Level Design to Evoke Spatial Exploration: The Influence of a Secondary Task

    P. Acevedo, M. Choi, H. Liu, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    Extended Abstracts of ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2024.
    Access:

  • How does Juicy Game Feedback Motivate? Testing Curiosity, Competence, and Effectance

    D. Kao, N. Ballou, K. Gerling, H. Breitsohl, S. Deterding
    ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2024.
    Access:

  • Exploring How Gender-Anonymous Voice Avatars Influence Women's Performance in Online Computing Group Work

    D. Kao, S. T. Mubarrat, A. Joshi, S. Pandita, C. Mousas, H.N. Liang, R. Ratan
    International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 2024.
    Access:

  • Collaborating With My Doppelgänger: The Effects of Self-Similar Appearance and Voice of a Virtual Character During a Jigsaw Puzzle Co-solving Task

    S. Guo, M. Choi, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    ACM SIGGRAPH I3D, 2024.
    Access:

  • Impact of Tutorial Modes with Different Time Flow Rates in Virtual Reality Games

    B. Chen, X. Yan, X. Hu, D. Kao, H.N. Liang
    ACM SIGGRAPH I3D, 2024.
    Access:

  • The Development and Validation of the Motivations for Avatar-Mediated Meetings (MAMM) Scale

    S. Pandita, R. Ratan, T. Kim, ..., D. Kao (Author #20), et al.
    International Communication Association, 2024.
    Access:

  • Effects of Speed of a Collocated Virtual Walker and Proximity Toward a Static Virtual Character on Avoidance Movement Behavior

    M. Nelson, A. Koilias, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (IEEE ISMAR), 2023.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Appearance and Voice Mismatch of Virtual Characters

    M. Choi, A. Koilias, M. Volonte, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    Adjunct Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, 2023.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Effect of the Group Size and Feedback of Non-Player Character Spectators in Virtual Reality Exergames

    W. Xu, K. Yu, X. Meng, D. Monteiro, D. Kao, H.N. Liang
    Frontiers in Psychology, 2023.
    Access:

  • Effect of Frame Rate on User Experience, Performance, and Simulator Sickness in Virtual Reality

    J. Wang, R. Shi, W. Zheng, W. Xie, D. Kao, H.N. Liang
    IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces, published in IEEE TVCG, 2023.
    Access:

  • Synthesizing Game Levels for Collaborative Gameplay in a Shared Virtual Environment

    H. Liu, M. Choi, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    Best Paper Award, ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems, 2023.
    Access:

  • Towards an Educational Computing Career Exploration Game

    D. Kao, A.J. Magana, O. Oyedokun, A. Ravi
    Extended Abstracts of ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2022.
    Access:

  • Procedural Game Level Design to Trigger Spatial Exploration

    P. Acevedo, M. Choi, H. Liu, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2022.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Influence of Demographic Factors on Progression and Playtime in Educational Games

    A. Joshi, C. Mousas, D.F. Harrell, D. Kao
    Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2022.
    Access:

  • Zen Hanzi: A Game for Raising Hanzi Component Awareness

    O. Keehl, D. Kao, E. Melcer
    Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2022.
    Access:

  • Audio Matters Too: How Audial Avatar Customization Enhances Visual Avatar Customization

    D. Kao, R. Ratan, C. Mousas, A. Joshi, E. Melcer
    Honorable Mention Award, ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2022.
    Access:

  • Emotional and Cognitive Effects of Learning with Computer Simulations and Computer Videogames

    A.J. Magana, J. Hwang, S. Feng, S. Rebello, T. Zu, D. Kao
    Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 2022.
    Access:

  • Exploring Relevance, Meaningfulness, and Perceived Learning in Entertainment Games

    R. Sharma, E. Melcer, D. Kao
    Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA), 2022.
    Access:

  • Driving Interdisciplinary Collaboration through Adapted Conjecture Mapping: A Case Study with the PECAS Mediator

    M.A. Chang, A.J. Magana, B. Benes, D. Kao, J. Fusco
    Digital Promise, 2022.
    Access:

  • The Effects of Observation in Video Games: How Remote Observation Influences Player Experience, Motivation, and Behaviour

    D. Kao
    Behaviour & Information Technology, 2022.
    Access:

  • Not Very Effective: Validity Issues of the Effectance in Games Scale

    N. Ballou, H. Breitsohl, D. Kao, K. Gerling, S. Deterding
    Extended Abstracts of ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2021.
    Access:

  • The Effects of a Self-Similar Avatar Voice in Educational Games

    D. Kao, R. Ratan, C. Mousas, A.J. Magana
    Honorable Mention Award, ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2021.
    Access:

  • Evaluating Tutorial-Based Instructions for Controllers in Virtual Reality Games

    D. Kao, A.J. Magana, C. Mousas
    ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2021.
    Access:

  • Evaluating Virtual Reality Locomotion Interfaces on Collision Avoidance Task with a Virtual Character

    C. Mousas, D. Kao, A. Koilias, B. Rekabdar
    The Visual Computer (Proc. of CGI 2021), 2021.
    Access:

  • Fighting COVID-19 at Purdue University: Design and Evaluation of a Game for Teaching COVID-19 Hygienic Best Practices

    D. Kao, A. Joshi, C. Mousas, A. Peddireddy, A. K. Gopi, J. Li, J. Springer, B.S. McGowan, J.B. Reed
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2021.
    Access:

  • Toward Understanding Embodied Human-Virtual Character Interaction Through Virtual and Tactile Hugging

    D. Cui, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    Computer Animation and Social Agents (CASA), 2021.
    Access:

  • Toward Understanding the Effects of Virtual Character Appearance on Avoidance Movement Behavior

    C. Mousas, A. Koilias, B. Rekabdar, D. Kao, D. Anastasiou
    IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (IEEE VR), 2021.
    Access:

  • A Systematic Review of Literature on the Effectiveness of Intelligent Tutoring Systems in STEM

    S. Feng, A.J. Magana, D. Kao
    IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), 2021.
    Access:

  • First-Year Exploratory Studies about Students' Career Decision Processes and the Impact of Data-Driven Decision Making

    T. Karabiyik, D. Kao, A.J. Magana
    The Educational Review, USA, 2021.
    Access:

  • Virtual Reality Racket Sports: Virtual Drills for Exercise and Training

    H. Liu, Z. Wang, C. Mousas, D. Kao
    IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (IEEE ISMAR), 2020.
    Access:

  • Using Real-Time, In-Game Measures to Evaluate Game Difficulty

    B. Sherrick, C. L. Smith, D. Kao, C. Mousas
    National Communication Association (NCA), 2020.
    Access:

  • Hack.VR: A Programming Game in Virtual Reality

    D. Kao, C. Mousas, A.J. Magana, D.F. Harrell, R. Ratan, E.F. Melcer, B. Sherrick, P. Parsons, D.A. Gusev
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2020.
    Access:

  • Exploring Help Facilities in Game-Making Software

    D. Kao
    Best Paper Nominee, ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2020.
    Access:

  • The Effects of Juiciness in an Action RPG

    D. Kao
    Entertainment Computing, 2020.
    Access:
  • Real and Virtual Environment Mismatching Induces Arousal and Alters Movement Behavior

    Real and Virtual Environment Mismatching Induces Arousal and Alters Movement Behavior

    C. Mousas, D. Kao, A. Koilias, B. Rekabdar
    IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (IEEE VR), 2020.
    Access:
  • JavaStrike: A Java Programming Engine Embedded in Virtual Worlds

    JavaStrike: A Java Programming Engine Embedded in Virtual Worlds

    D. Kao
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2019.
    Access:
  • The Effects of Anthropomorphic Avatars vs. Non-Anthropomorphic Avatars in a Jumping Game

    The Effects of Anthropomorphic Avatars vs. Non-Anthropomorphic Avatars in a Jumping Game

    D. Kao
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2019.
    Access:
  • Exploring How Preference and Perceived Performance Vary in Different Game Genres Across Time of Day

    Exploring How Preference and Perceived Performance Vary in Different Game Genres Across Time of Day

    D. Kao, J.J. De Simone
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2019.
    Access:
  • Infinite Loot Box: A Platform for Simulating Video Game Loot Boxes

    Infinite Loot Box: A Platform for Simulating Video Game Loot Boxes

    D. Kao
    Best Paper Nominee, IEEE Transactions on Games, 2019.
    Access:
  • Exploring the Effects of Growth Mindset Usernames in STEM Games

    Exploring the Effects of Growth Mindset Usernames in STEM Games

    D. Kao
    American Educational Research Association (AERA), 2019.
    Access:
  • Toward Using Virtual Identities in Computer Science Learning for Broadening Participation

    Toward Using Virtual Identities in Computer Science Learning for Broadening Participation

    S. V. Harrell, M. Wagoner, D. Kao, D. Olson, A. Rodriguez, D.F. Harrell
    American Educational Research Association (AERA), 2019.
    Access:
  • Exploring the Use of Virtual Identities for Broadening Participation in Computer Science Learning

    Exploring the Use of Virtual Identities for Broadening Participation in Computer Science Learning

    D.F. Harrell, D. Olson, D. Kao, A. Rodriguez, L. Carney, S. V. Harrell
    Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN), 2018.
    Access:

  • The Effects of Badges and Avatar Identification on Play and Making in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2018.
    Access:
  • Researching and Developing the Impacts of Virtual Identity on Computational Learning Environments

    Researching and Developing the Impacts of Virtual Identity on Computational Learning Environments

    D. Kao
    Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2018.
    Access:
  • Embellishment & Effects: Seduction by Style

    Embellishment & Effects: Seduction by Style

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    In J. Banks (Ed.), Avatar, Assembled, New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2017.
    Access:

  • MazeStar: A Platform for Studying Virtual Identity and Computer Science Education

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2017.
    Access:

  • Toward Understanding the Impact of Visual Themes and Embellishment on Performance, Engagement, and Self-Efficacy in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    Best Student Paper Award, American Educational Research Association (AERA), 2017.
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  • Exploring the Effects of Dynamic Avatars on Performance and Engagement in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    Games+Learning+Society (GLS), 2016.
    Access:

  • Highlighting MazeStar: A Platform for Studying Avatar Use in Computer Science Learning Environments

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell, C.U. Lim, S.V. Harrell, M. Wagoner, H. Ho
    Games+Learning+Society (GLS), 2016.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Impact of Avatar Color on Game Experience in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    Extended Abstracts of ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2016.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Effects of Encouragement in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    Extended Abstracts of ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), 2016.
    Access:

  • Toward Understanding the Impacts of Role Model Avatars on Engagement in Computer Science Learning

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    American Educational Research Association (AERA), 2016.
    Access:

  • Exploring the Use of Role Model Avatars in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    Experimental AI in Games (EXAG), 2015.
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  • Exploring the Impact of Role Model Avatars on Game Experience in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY), 2015.
    Access:

  • Toward Avatar Models to Enhance Performance and Engagement in Educational Games

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    IEEE Computational Intelligence in Games (CIG), 2015.
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  • Toward Understanding Real-World Social Impacts of Avatars

    D.F. Harrell, D. Kao, C.U. Lim
    Electronic Literature Organization (ELO), 2015.
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  • Toward Evaluating the Impacts of Virtual Identities on STEM Learning

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2015.
    Access:

  • Exigent: An Automatic Avatar Generation System

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2015.
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  • Mazzy: A STEM Learning Game

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2015.
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  • Exploring construction, play, use of virtual identities in STEM learning

    D. Kao, D.F. Harrell
    Jean Piaget Society Annual Conference (JPS), 2015.
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  • The Chimeria Platform: User Empowerment through Expressing Social Group Membership Phenomena

    D.F. Harrell, D. Kao, C.U. Lim, J. Lipshin, A. Sutherland
    Digital Humanities (DH), 2014.
    Access:

  • Stories of Stigma and Acceptance Using the Chimeria Platform

    D.F. Harrell, D. Kao, C.U. Lim, J. Lipshin, A. Sutherland
    Electronic Literature Organization (ELO), 2014.
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  • The Chimeria Platform: An Intelligent Narrative System for Modeling Social Identity-Related Experiences

    D.F. Harrell, D. Kao, C.U. Lim, J. Lipshin, A. Sutherland, J. Makivic
    Intelligent Narrative Technologies (INT), 2014.
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  • Authoring Conversational Narratives in Games with the Chimeria Platform

    D.F. Harrell, D. Kao, C.U. Lim, J. Lipshin, A. Sutherland, J. Makivic, D. Olson
    Best Paper Honorable Mention Award, ACM Foundations of Digital Games (FDG), 2014.
    Access:

  • Computationally Modeling Narratives of Social Group Membership with the Chimeria System

    D.F. Harrell, D. Kao, C.U. Lim
    Computational Models of Narrative (CMN), 2013.
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  • The Living Liberia Fabric: An Interactive Narrative Artwork Memorializing Civil War in Liberia

    D.F. Harrell, C.U. Lim, D. Kao, J. Zhang
    International Symposium on Electronic Art (ISEA), 2013.
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  • Reward Preference in Video Games

    D. Kao
    Princeton University, Technical Report, 2012.
    Access:

Students

  • Carol Shao (PhD)
  • Franklin Wu (PhD)
  • Melissa Kronenberger (PhD)
  • Olaoluwa Oyedokun (PhD)
  • Syed Tanzim Mubarrat (PhD)